English low ( Civil law, criminal law)

Criminal law:- The main objective is to regulate society by threat of punishment. A crime is an offense against the state. The state prosecutes a person who is accused of a crime. The object is to prove guilt. Burden of proof is that – guilt /fault must be proved beyond logical/practical doubt.

The criminal court will sentence the defendant and it may fine him or impose a period of imprisonment.

Civil law:- Civil law is sets out the right and duties of persons as between themselves. An action is brought by one person (the claimant) against another (the defendant). The object is to show liability or responsibility/accountability.  Burden of proof is that liability/responsibility must be proved on the balance of probabilities.  Objectives-usually financial compensation to put claimant in the position he would have been in had the wrong not occurred.

The civil court will order the defendant to pay damage or it may order some other remedy, e.g. specific performance or injunction.

Marginal costing, Its Advantages and Disadvantages

Marginal Costing

It is a costing technique where only variable cost or direct cost will be charged to the cost unit produced.

Marginal costing also shows the effect on profit of changes in volume/type of output by differentiating between fixed and variable costs.

Salient Points:

• Marginal costing involves ascertaining marginal costs. Since marginal costs are direct cost, this costing technique is also known as direct costing;

• In marginal costing, fixed costs are never charged to production. They are treated as period charge and is written off to the profit and loss account in the period incurred;

• Once marginal cost is ascertained contribution can be computed. Contribution is the excess of revenue over marginal costs.

• The marginal cost statement is the basic document/format to capture the marginal costs.

Advantages of Marginal Costing:

• It is simple to understand re: variable versus fixed cost concept;

• A useful short term survival costing technique particularly in very competitive environment or recessions where orders are accepted as long as it covers the marginal cost of the business and the excess over the marginal cost contributes toward fixed costs so that losses are kept to a minimum;

• Its shows the relationship between cost, price and volume;

• Under or over absorption do not arise in marginal costing;

• Stock valuations are not distorted with present years fixed costs;

• Its provide better information hence is a useful managerial decision making tool;

• It concentrates on the controllable aspects of business by separating fixed and variable costs

• The effect of production and sales policies is more clearly seen and understood.

Disadvantages Of Marginal Costing

• Marginal cost has its limitation since it makes use of historical data while decisions by management relates to future events;

• It ignores fixed costs to products as if they are not important to production;

• Stock valuation under this type of costing is not accepted by the Inland Revenue as it’s ignore the fixed cost element;

• It fails to recognize that in the long run, fixed costs may become variable;

• Its oversimplified costs into fixed and variable as if it is so simply to demarcate them;

• It’s not a good costing technique in the long run for pricing decision as it ignores fixed cost. In the long run, management must consider the total costs not only the variable portion;

• Difficulty to classify properly variable and fixed cost perfectly, hence stock valuation can be distorted if fixed cost is classify as variable

What is Absorption costing, Its Advantages and Disadvantages

Absorption Costing: -

It is a costing technique where all normal costs whether it is variable or fixed costs are charged to cost units produced.

Unlike marginal costing which take the fixed cost as period cost.

Advantages of Absorption Costing:

• It recognizes the importance of fixed costs in production;

• This method is accepted by Inland Revenue as stock is not undervalued;

• This method is always used to prepare financial accounts;

• When production remains constant but sales fluctuate absorption costing will show less fluctuation in net profit and

• Unlike marginal costing where fixed costs are agreed to change into variable cost, it is cost into the stock value hence distorting stock valuation.

Disadvantages of Absorption Costing:

• As absorption costing emphasized on total cost namely both variable and fixed, it is not so useful for management to use to make decision, planning and control;

• as the manager’s emphasis is on total cost, the cost volume profit relationship is ignored. The manager needs to use his intuition to make the decision.

Difference between in the end and at the end

"In the end = finally, after a long time:

In the end, I got a visa for Russia.

At the end = at the point where something stops:

I think the film’s a bit weak at the end. p. 450

Difference between on time and in time

difference between on time and in time?

Michael Swan’s excellent Practical English Usage (Oxford University Press), provides a succinct answer to both of these questions:

"On time = at the planned time; neither late nor early:

Peter wants the meeting to start exactly on time.

In time = with enough time to spare; before the last moment:

He would have died if they hadn’t got him to the hospital in time." p. 450